Lakatos and MacIntyre on Incommensurability and the Rationality of Theory-change :: Science Scientific Philosophy Essays

Lakatos and MacIntyre on Incommensurability and the Rationality of Theory-changeABSTRACT Imre Lakatos methodology of scientific research programs and Alasdair MacIntyres tradition-constituted enquiry are two preserve attempts to overcome the assumptions of logical empiricism, while saving the appearance that theory-change is rational. The key difference between them is their antithetical stand on the issue of incommensurability between large-scale theories. This leaving generates other areas of disagreement the most important are the relevance of the historical record and the presence of close criteria that are common to rival programs. I memorialise that Lakatos rejection of the incommensurability thesis and dismissal of actual history are motivated by the belief that neither are compatible with the rationality of theory-change. If MacIntyre can deny the demand of dispensing with the historical record, and show that incommensurability and the consequent absence of shared decisi on criteria are compatible with rationality in theory-change, then Lakatos argument leave behind lose its force, and MacIntyre will better honor the intention to take seriously the historicality of science. I argue that MacIntyre can dissolve tensions between incommensurability and rationality in theory-change if he is able, first, to distinguish a sense of the incommensurability thesis that preserves genuine rivalry between theories, and second, to show that the possibility of rationality in theory-change depends not on the presence of common decision criteria, precisely on the fact that traditions can fail by their own standards. After reconstructing and examining the argument, I conclude that the notion of a traditions internal failure is coherent, but that it leaves crucial questions about the epistemology and ontology of traditions that must be answered if MacIntyres proposal is to constitute a genuine improvement on Lakatos. Although he is not primarily a philosopher of scie nce, Alasdair MacIntyre has emaciated on post-Kuhnian methodological reflection in his formulation of an historicist theory of knowledge (1984a 271) or what his more recent work terms tradition-constituted inquiry (1988 354). In more respects, MacIntyres traditions are similar to the research programs described in the work of Imre Lakatos (1977). Both thinkers propose a shift in focus from atomic propositions to some display case of holism by making an entire theory, or series of theories, the proper object of evaluation. Each argues that the issues investigated by participants in research traditions are not unending questions, but are crucially shaped by their own problematics. Without devaluing consistency and logical rigor, each supposes that incoherence of a certain sort is the motor of clever progress.

Racism Essay -- essays research papers

RacismHave you ever been picked on or made fun of because your nationality is antithetic from someone elses or the color of your skin? If so, then the person who did it was probably a racist person. Racism still outlives within all cultures. well-nigh people wont admit theyre a racist, but their actions and words prove otherwise. Most people wont directly remove other races, but that doesnt mean it doesnt happen everyday. Many will argue that their race is superior over another, or that the actions of a few individuals of a certain race determines how that race of people are, therefore making them unequal. I think all people should be treated equally, no depend who they are or what they look like. The reason why I know racism exists is because Ive been called names and have seen it happen to others before. Throughout my high educate experiences and being out in the world lets me know that its out there. I used to think African Americans were the only targets but Ive seen and f ilm about other races also. I was reading an article in Vibe magazine a twenty-two year old male was shot 41 times by police for being accused of committing a crime he didnt do. Him and his family were from New Guinea. Ive seen the foreign exchange students get picked on at school just for being different than all the other students at my high school. People usually say racism does not exist because they treat everyone the same and no one ever has treated them with prejudice. Also we all ...

Essay --

It quotes,that Advertisers have enourmous financial stake in a narrow ideal of femininity that they promote,especially in apricot product ads (Kilbourne 1989.) (Provocateur,1999,page 54)The beauty of women also is defined.The image of the ideal beautiful woman (see figure 3.22a-f) may perhaps be captured with the concept of the perfect provocateur (an ideal image that arouses a feeling or reaction).The exemplary female prototype in advertising, regardless of product or service, displays youth (no lines or wrinkles), good looks, sexual seductiveness (Baudrillard 1990), and perfection (no scars, blemishes, or even pores) (Kilbourne 1990). The perfect provocateur is non human rather, she is a form or hollow shell representing a female figure. Accepted attractiveness is her just now attribute. She is slender, typically tall and long-legged. Women are constantly held to this unrealistic standards of beauty. if they fail to attain it, they are led to feel guilty and ashamed. Cultural id eology tells women that they will not be desirable to,or loved by, men unless they are physically perf...

Earlier Teen Years :: Personal Narrative Growing Up Essays

Earlier Teen Years My little sisters all grown up now, entirely shes only ten years old. She go steadys like a teenager. She thinks like a teenager. And you could say she acts like one because teenagers themselves are not very mature. She loves to bent around me, and she tries to persuade me to act more like a typical 18-year-old girl because she wants to be one herself. She begs me to take her shopping and let her do my hair. She wants to be just like me. At first, I thought it was because shes the youngest in the family, and she wanted to be like her big sister and brother. However, I realized I didnt look like the typical teen. In fact, she dresses more like a typical teenager than I do. Many of her friends are the oldest children in their families yet try to put forward the image of a teenager. They all seem to wish they were older. Girls these days just seem to want to, and do, grow up sooner and sooner. It seems the teenage years take aim changed, starting well befo re the age of thirteen. As I have said, my sister and her friends are prime examples of this change. For instance, they have sleep-overs and stay up till dawn. Their numerous a(prenominal) sleep-over activities include gossiping about boys and discussing fashions, painting nails, and experimenting with make-up. I never did such things at that age. My friends and I had to go to bed by one or deuce at the latest, and we played games and watched movies. My sister also thinks that she should have the same privileges that I do at age eighteen when shes only ten. She thinks she can stay up late, till ten or eleven oclock. I was in bed by eight when I was her age. Not only does she want to stay up late, but she also thinks that she can watch any movie she wants. Its hard to pick a movie the whole family will like thats rated PG these days, so many times we choose a PG-13 movie (sometimes even R) and let her watch with us. This has given her the idea that she is mature enough to watch a nything she wants. She likes the TV show Friends, but at her age she doesnt completely understand the adult content in the show, nor does she need to.

Sir William Wallace :: essays research papers

The Help of Sir William WallaceSir William Wallace is one of Scotlands greatest generals and was a great help towards the freedom of Scotland because he brought patriotism to the minds of his mate economicalmen in order fight for the freedom for which was nearly taken away by the their English neighbors. He would ride through Scotland gathering clans both from the gamy and lowlands. Over the years after his death, Scots have proclaimed Sir William Wallace as their countries hero and the man who made freedom run through the blood of so many who were by his side.Hundreds of years before the time of Sir William Wallace, Roman troops tried to conquer parts of Scotland but failed. The savagery of the Scots put the concern in the Romans and caused them to build Hadrians Wall. The wall separated Scotland and England (which was part of the Roman Empire). When the great empire fell to destruction by many Germanic tribes, Scots began to live a more peaceful life. During the Norman conques t of 1066, a group of people called the Normans invaded England, killed many Anglo-Saxon and Celtic tribes, and took everywhere the country. England was now at a lower place Norman rule and would stay that way. (Comptons Home Encyclopedia CD Rom) In 1296, English troops invaded the lowlands of Scotland burning villages, killing innocent Scots, and trying to over rule the vast countrysides of the lowlands and the highlands. The new ruler of England, King Edward I the Long Shanks, started all this. He believed that he should have control of the whole island itself. His idea some conquering Scotland was that if he cant beat them out, then he could breed them out. He brought the old English custom called Prima Noctes if a muliebrity is married in the country of Scotland, an English lord has every right to take her away from her husband for a few days and have his ways with her. Clans of lowlanders came together to form an army. It took awhile for the highlanders to know about this. Conflicts brook out between the Scottish rebels and English troops. Bows and arrows and other combat weapons were taken from the Scots draw off for their swords and axes. (Comptons Home Encyclopedia CD Rom) The answer to Scotlands problems came with the birth of William Wallace. His exact date of birth is unknown but he was born in the 1270s.

Sir William Wallace :: essays research papers

The Help of Sir William WallaceSir William Wallace is one of Scotlands greatest generals and was a great help towards the freedom of Scotland because he brought nationalism to the minds of his fellow economicalmen in order fight for the freedom for which was nearly taken away by the their English neighbors. He would ride through Scotland gathering clans twain from the high and lowlands. Over the years after his death, Scots befool proclaimed Sir William Wallace as their countries hero and the man who made freedom run through the neckcloth of so many who were by his side.Hundreds of years before the time of Sir William Wallace, Roman troops tried to conquer parts of Scotland but failed. The savagery of the Scots coiffure the fear in the Romans and caused them to build Hadrians Wall. The wall separated Scotland and England (which was part of the Roman Empire). When the great empire fell to destruction by many Germanic tribes, Scots began to live a more peaceful life. During the Norman conquest of 1066, a group of people called the Normans invaded England, killed many Anglo-Saxon and Celtic tribes, and took over the country. England was straight under Norman rule and would stay that way. (Comptons Home Encyclopedia CD Rom) In 1296, English troops invaded the lowlands of Scotland burning villages, killing innocent Scots, and try to over rule the vast countrysides of the lowlands and the highlands. The new ruler of England, King Edward I the Long Shanks, started all this. He believed that he should have control of the whole island itself. His mind about conquering Scotland was that if he cant beat them out, then he could breed them out. He brought the old English custom called Prima Noctes if a woman is married in the country of Scotland, an English lord has every right to take her away from her husband for a few days and have his ways with her. Clans of lowlanders came together to form an army. It took awhile for the highlanders to know about this. Confli cts brook out between the Scottish rebels and English troops. Bows and arrows and other combat weapons were taken from the Scots except for their swords and axes. (Comptons Home Encyclopedia CD Rom) The answer to Scotlands problems came with the birth of William Wallace. His exact date of birth is unknown but he was born(p) in the 1270s.

Honor Killing of Muslim Women

approve Killings of Moslem Women Introduction Killings in the name of honor are undoubtedly a disaster, an unlawful act, a terror against humanity. celebrate Killings of Muslim women is an antique trend followed in Islam in which male members of family and social community deliberately kill women and girls of their family or tribes as a result of belief that they boast conducted any shameful act and ruined the reputation of family or tribe. Honor Killings in Muslims has been inherited from the ancient tribal days of 1200 BC when no study religion was came into being thus honor violent death has no direct relation to Religion.The concept of Honor Killings has developed as a result of several(prenominal) attitudes in culture found on classes and background, and religious groups, where women is alloted as a property of men and possess no rights. The alleged degradation is mostly based upon suspicions only and these suspicious behaviors hold unacceptable style of dressing, willi ngly marrying anyone by experience choice peculiarly with roundone who belongs to opposing community or tribe, conducting flagitious sexual acts, or even engaging in homosexual acts.Statistics show that about 20000 women become victim of honor killing each year particularly in Asia and Middle East (Fisk. R. , 2010, n. d. ). Honor Killing in the name of religion is the most hideous crimes and it is still occurring in most part of the worlds due to perceived shameful acts in the eyes of men and much(prenominal) tragic events have very valuable lesson in it for the meliorated and mature people. DiscussionPakistan, the Islamic res publica country, is deliberated as one of the most harmful and dangerous country for women to live in because of growing rate of crime in form of honor killing and other related valiances. According to a survey conducted in this regard, it was discovered that Pakistan was the fifth largest country in which women were killed for dowry and honor. Islam and law both prohibits in big(a) victims unless there sin is proved and honor killings take place on the basis of doubts and suspicions of men and groups.On the contrary Islam teaches to avoid penalizement if there is a ambit and does not consider pregnancy as an evidence of shameful sexual act. This is unfortunate that such odious acts are false fully supported by few Islamic scholars who tend to justify these activates with respect to Islam. For instance as per the saying of the Messenger of God in Islam that one should stop the crime with his own hands if he/she see it happening. These kinds of statements are misperceived by these scholars and play a vital role in encouraging honor killings of Women.These scholars promote the point of go steady of taking law into hands and treating women as an object (Mufti. N. M. et al. , 2012, pp. 180-185). One of the popular examples set by the honor-killing victim named as Mukhtar Mai from Punjab, Pakistan, whose brother was claimed of ra ping a girl from f number caste family, thus, it was decided by the tribe to punish her bother in form of a revenge in which Mukhtar Mai was raped by a conspiracy in order to satisfy the other party and then was forced to commit suicide, so that her family restore their pride and honor.But Mukhtar Mai decided not to kill her ego rather to fight against injustice. She belonged to a poor and illiterate culture, which was a real hindrance in her case and today she is running a school for women to educate them to raise voice against honor killings and injustice. She is a true figure for women in Pakistan who have been gang raped, spoiled faces with acid, and ripped nose as a result of Honor killings activities (Parker. H. , 2007, pp. 507-508).As per statistics, 300 women were found to be killed for honor in 1997 in Pakistan, 23 murders on average are done for sake of honor in Jordon every year, 36 honor crimes were occurred in Lebanon from 1996 to 1998 in small cities and villages, 4 00 women were murdered in Yemen and 52 such crimes were reported in Egypt in 1997. Whereas, acid attacks change magnitude from 47 to 200 in Bangladesh and 5000 women are murdered by their in laws per year in India as a result of Honor Killings.Honor Crimes are as well witnessed in European and Western Countries Immigrants communities. Because many women are unable to communicate to the state authority of the honor abuses due to linguistic issues. Such list of countries includes Germany, Sweden, Turkey, and UK. For instance, UK has witnessed 20 such deaths of women in the past five years due to honor crimes. India is a country which has sever traditions that are practiced even to date these include burning brides for sake of dowry, acid attacks, rapes and gang rapes, sexual harassments, illing and raping young girls etc and these apply to both Muslim and Hindu women in their culture. No matter how modernize a women becomes, but such kind of norm against women hardly changes (Tripat hi. A. & Yadav. S. , 2005, pp. 63-78). Lessons Learned It is understood that people who indulge into Honor killings of Women and girls have emotional attachment with their views, belief, culture and religion. They consider such issues as a matter of pride and respect. In order to hinder such acts I believe one has to take serious actions.According to my friendship and understanding about the underlined topic, publishing and distributing actual Islamic sayings with references can reduce honor killings, more education should be given to people from all classes that marrying some one willingly is not a reason to kill anyone, print media and television should broadcasts open debates on these issues which are often avoided as a taboo, I believe one can use the mosque (A religious place of worship for Muslims) as a platform to educate illiterate people and notify them that its a crime, governance itself should contribute and initiate movements against such acts wherever honor killings a re taken place in Muslim World. I believe it is everyones responsibility to stop this activity and nip the evil in the bud wherever witnessed for sake of saving humanity and womens rights (Mufti. N. M. et al. , 2012, pp. 180-185). I believe such victims in case of survival should be provided with psychological rehabilitation and mental support.Encouraging people who so ever witness these crimes to report immediately to the concerned authority. Government should provide financial aid to NGOs who are continuously working for this cause. Both boys and girls should be educated about equal human rights from the childhood (Tripathi. A. & Yadav. S. , 2005, pp. 63-78). Conclusion Honor Killings of Muslim women in the name of religion is just a means of escape for men, communities, tribal groups who believe in their so called norms, culture, tradition and values. Such terrible acts occur in almost every country where Muslims with conservative thinking are residing and they believe that women are just n object whose activities may act their reputation severely.These acts should be stopped by law and religious teachings. Concerned authorities should take serious actions against criminals involved in honor killing and punish them strictly. Works Cited Fist. R. The Crime wave that shames the world. The Independent. (2010) Web. 11 Oct. 2012. http//www. independent. co. uk Mufti. N. M. et al. Honor Killing in Pakistan An Islamic Perspective. Asian Social Science. vol 8 no. (10) (2012) pp. 180-185 Parker. H. Reviews Killing Women for honor. Contemporary Review. (2007) pp. 507-508. Tripathi. A. & Yadav. S. For the interest of honor But Whose Honor? Honor Crimes Against Women. Asia Pacific Journal on Human Rights and the Law. vol 2 (2005) pp. 63-78.

Is Technology Making us intimate Strangers? Essay

In a world of modern sophistication and changing applied science it is indeed easy to feel lost in a catamenia of gadgets like i-pods, cellular phones, laptops and etcetera. E verything is presented at your finger tips. Having a cellular phone with Wireless Fidelity (wi-fi) access will enable you to hold the world in your palm, figuratively speaking though. The amount of information and possibility of connecting to people across the globe is endless. However, as Coleman would put it, technology only gives us the illusion of intimacy.I would have to agree with that to some extent. Though technology has made countries borderless through the internet and the opposite devices, it also has made compassionate connection less personal. sorb for example the electronic mail (email) this innovation is now frequently used by people instead of making calls or actual feeling to face conversation simply because writing an email allows you to multitask. Its easy and female genitalia be done along with your office works. But this innovation has reduced military personnel connection into a youve got mail status.The personal touch of a phone call or actual face to face conversation like gestures, strengthen of voice, facial expressions and body language are hidden from the person viewing the mail. This personal touch is viewed by communication scientists as important factors of effective human communication. If we cross them out in communicating to the people who matters to us, then how can we be truly effective in knowing what they really feel? Smileys and separate graphics that we use to substitute for subtle emotions do not really reflect how we truly feel, thus we become ineffective in communicating.This then weakens the very foundation of social communication (Seirra, 2007). Everyday I see people milling around as though they are so engrossed by the gadget they have in their palm that they fail to notice a neighbor of an officemate who passed by. What more would it be at home? It could get worst. Parents can get glued to the internet and children can shut their senses from the world with their i-pods and mp3s. Through these innovations a home can house people from different worlds.However technology has its pros and cons. fairish like everything that man invented, the outcome of an innovation exempt depends on how it is used. Technology can bridge the communication gap of lovers, families and friends who has been separated by distance and space. It can offer information at the fastest and cheapest way possible. For those who have no means of communicating face to face, a call or an email would suffice. each innovation can be a boon or bane to society depending on how we use it.Though technology can weaken the interpersonal communication of individuals, it can also be used to strengthen it. A call or an email between friends who havent seen each other for quite some time can be reunited with the use of technology. A simple text to a love d one in a interfering day can show them your care. However this means of communication should be just a supplement to face to face communication. At the very onus of every human being is the need for attention (Seirra, 2007).It is human nature to crave for love and compassion from others, if not everyone, but from someone. I believe that technology was created for the greater good of mankind, thus, we must use technology to sustain what really matters to us.Works Cited Coleman, Jonathan. Is technology making us intimate strangers?. Newsweek. 2000 Sierra, Kathy. Why face-to-face still matters April 13, 2006. Date retrieved October 31, 2007. http//headrush. typepad. com/creating_passionate_users/2006/04/why_facetoface_. html.

Her Lifestory Essay

Now you can see how successful Concepcion Baylock is. At the age of 12 the young Concepcion was already away from her family and lived with her relatives in order to have a good education. Living with her relatives is non that easy, she had to do the household chores for them to let her stay, and she goes to school at the same time. At a very young age Concepcion showed her diligence in everything she does. When the time her grandparents took her, Concepcions life changed because they treat her nicely and they were good to her. heretofore she still tried to help doing the chores because she wanted to thank them, in that simple way she showed her grandparents how thankful she is. As a teenager Concepcion supposed to be respite out with her friends going to movies, parties, and outings. However she missed this, she would rather save her money that was given by her grandparents. She doesnt even buy new things. When she was still in her senior years in high school she already worked by teaching grade school student. Later on she worked as a rally operator in the United States Naval force in Subic.While she was working she married an irresponsible man, he just let Concepcion doing all the work. uncorrupted thing Concepcion successfully gets out of this marriage. She had a child with this unsuccessful marriage. Years later, Concepcion married again with an American who she had a four children. He is the one who helped her to frame in up her first business, they had a jeepney and taxi concession. When her business succeeded she put up her second business a four-storey hotel, which later on turned out to be a combined hotel, night club, and restaurant.Her ventures succeeded, but she remembers that before she married her second husband she faced many disapproval regarding in her plan f having a business. She never let this bring her down, despite she used this as challenge to pursue more. Concepcion was not still contented she pursue her education in Manila. She ma naged to filch her children and run a business at the same time while she was studying. She had a very hectic schedule she only had around four hours of calm every day. After she finished her degree in commerce, she proceed to law, and then to a masters in public administration, and a doctorate in commerce.Concepcion Blaylock is now a president and chairman of Diamond Motors Corporation. As an entrepreneur and a manager Conception knows how to deal with different type of commonwealth. She knew how to treat her people properly. She never hesitates to help them, especially those who showed consignment to her and to the business. She never forgets to credit the companies who trust her. She always makes sure to maintain their trust to her. She never abused her creditor, who trusts her. Today, when Concepcion Blaylock looks back at her past she was very thankful for such(prenominal) an experience that she had.She was very grateful with the things that challenged her more to do more a nd thought her to be strong. A. Cultural Values apocalypse of the Value 1. Frugality (katipiran) As a child, she saved money rather than buy new things as an adult, did not immediately buy a car even though she can afford it. 2. Risk taking (lakas ng loob) She pursue her plan of having a business even though she knew that she dont have any formal orientation in running a business. 3. Amor Propio (utang na loob) She never hesitates helping her staff especially those who have proven loyalty and commitment. 4. Harmonious labor management relations She makes it to a point to compensate her people generously with profit sharing schemes and other benefits. 5. Diligence (sipag) At a young age, she already attributed this trait, she do the housemaid works and study at the same time. 6. Endurance (pagkamtiisin) She was already away with her family at an early age, for her to have a good education. She never let this be a reason for not to achieve her goals, instead she makes this as he r inspiration. B.As a Filipino we were brought up by our parents to have a sense of adventure (pakikipagsapalaran) that is big help in venturing a business. Filipinos were not afraid of trying new things , we intend to be a risk taker. We usually put in our mind that God will help us in everything we do, that is a bahala na attitude. Bahala na attitude is not that bad because we do our part, but we just hope for the guidance and help of God. We Filipinos are well known of having a good relationship to people such as beingness family oriented and pakikipagkapwa.Filipinos are naturally have a close family ties. This trait is a good thing when you are in a business. Our family serves as our strength because we knew that they will be always be there to support us. They are the one who inspires us to do our best. Filipinos also exhibits the trait of being good to the people around us. This trait really plays a big role in how Filipino entrepreneur manages their people very well. Yes, t he Filipino purification and values that were instill in us really help in building our entrepreneurial spirit.

Activity and Exercise

Chapter 38 application and Exercise Test Bank MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. The coordinated efforts of the musculoskeletal and nervous system keep back balance, posture, and torso alignment. Body alignment refers to a. A low center of gravity equilibrate over a wide source of support. b. The result of weight, center of gravity, and balance. c. The relationship of iodin corpse pull up stakes to a nonher. d. The force that occurs in a direction to oppose vogue. ANS C Body alignment refers to the relationship of i frame part to a nonher tree trunk part along a horizontal or vertical line.Body balance occurs when a relatively low center of gravity is balanced over a wide, stable base of support. Coordinated body movement is a result of weight, center of gravity, and balance. Friction is a force that occurs in a direction to oppose movement. DIF Remember reviewer 746-747 OBJ set forth the role of the musculoskeletal and nervous systems in the regulation of movement. big top app raisal manuscript Teaching/ accomplishment 2. A structural curvature of the spine associated with vertebral rotation is known as a. Scoliosis. b. Osteogenesis. c. Osteomalacia. . Arthritis. ANS A Scoliosis is a structural curvature of the spine associated with vertebral rotation. Osteogenesis imperfecta is an inherited unhealthiness that makes bones porous, short, bowed, and deformed. Osteomalacia is an uncommon metabolic ailment characterized by inadequate and delayed mineralization, resulting in compact and spongy bone. Arthritis is an inflammatory vocalise disease characterized by inflammation or destruction of the synovial membrane and articular cartilage, and by systemic signs of inflammation. DIF Remember REF 749 OBJDiscuss physiological and pathologic influences on body alignment and joint mobility. TOP judging multiple sclerosis Teaching/Learning a. 3. Unlike arthritis, joint degeneration Occurs only from noninflammatory disease. b. Occurs only from inflamma tory disease. c. Involves overgrowth of bone at the articular ends. d. Affects just aboutly nonweight-bearing joints ANS C Joint degeneration, which can occur with inflammatory and noninflammatory disease, is marked by changes in articular cartilage combined with overgrowth of bone at the articular ends. Degenerative changes commonly affect weight-bearing joints. DIF gain REF 749 OBJ Discuss physiological and pathological influences on body alignment and joint mobility. TOP quantifyment atomic number 62 Teaching/Learning The admit is providing cargon to a uncomplaining who is bedridden. To check fatigue, the shelter raises the height of the bed. The concur understands that balance is maintained by raising the bed to 4. a. Prevent a shift in the confines base of support. b. delimitate the base of support. c. Allow the nurse to bring his or her feet close together. d. Shift the center of gravity further away from the base of support. ANSA summit the height of the bed when performing a procedure counteracts bending too far at the waist and causing a shift in the base of support. Balance is maintained by maintaining proper body alignment and posture through two simple techniques. First, widen the base of support by separating the feet to a comfortable distance. Second, increase balance by bringing the center of gravity closer to the base of support. DIF Understand REF 747 OBJ Discuss physiological and pathological influences on body alignment and joint mobility. TOP Assessment MSC Teaching/Learning 5.Approximately what percentage of all back pain is associated with manual lifting tasks? a. 10% b. 25% c. 50% d. 75% ANS C Half of all back pain is associated with manual lifting tasks. DIF Remember REF 758 OBJ let on how to maintain and habit proper body mechanics. TOP Assessment MSC Teaching/Learning The nurse is preparing to position an immobile forbearing. Before doing so, the nurse must understand that 6. a. manual(a) liftin g is the easier method and should be tried first. b. Followe body mechanics principles alone will prevent back injury. c.Body mechanics can be snub when enduring handling equipment is used. d. Body mechanics alone be not sufficient to prevent injuries. ANS D Body mechanics alone atomic number 18 not sufficient to prevent musculoskeletal injuries when view or transferring longanimouss. The use of uncomplaining-handling equipment in junto with proper body mechanics is much feelingive than each one in isolation. Body mechanics cannot be ignored even when tolerant handling equipment is being used. Manual lifting is the last resort, and it is only used when it does not involve lifting most or all of the longanimouss weight. DIF UnderstandREF 758 OBJ Describe how to maintain and use proper body mechanics. TOP Assessment MSC Teaching/Learning 7. The nurse is preparing to reposition a patient. Before doing so, the nurse must a. Assess the weight to be lifted and the a ssistance needed. b. flak to manually lift the patient alone in advance asking for assistance. c. Attempt a manual lift only when lifting most or all of the patients weight. d. Not use the agency lift team if a mechanical lift is available. ANS A Before lifting, assess the weight to be lifted and determine the assistance needed and the resources available.Manual lifting is the last resort, and it is used when the task at hand does not involve lifting most or all of the patients weight. Use safe patient handling equipment in conjunction with agency lift teams to reduce the risk of injury to the patient and members of the health headache team. DIF Apply REF 758 OBJ Describe how to maintain and use proper body mechanics. TOP executing MSC Teaching/Learning Isotonic, isometric, and repellent isometric are three categories of deterrent example. They are classified according to the type of muscle concretion involved.Of the following runs, which are driveed isotonic? 8. a . Bicycling, swimming, walking, jogging, dancing b. Tightening or tensing of muscles without moving body parts c. Push-ups, hip lifting, pushing feet against a footboard on the bed d. Quadriceps set puzzle outs and contraction of the gluteal muscles ANS A Examples of isotonic applys are walking, swimming, dancing aerophilouss, jogging, bicycling, and moving arms and legs with light resistance. Isometric exercises involve cruddyening or tensing of muscles without moving body parts. Examples include quadriceps set exercises and contraction of the gluteal muscles.Examples of resistive isometric exercises are push-ups and hip lifting, as well as placing a footboard on the foot of the bed for patients to push against with their feet. DIF Remember REF 747 OBJ Describe how exercise and use benefit physiological and psychological mathematical process. TOP Assessment MSC Teaching/Learning 9. In political programning a physical performance curriculumme for a patient, the nurse must understand that a. Isotonic exercises cause contraction without changing muscle length. b. The best program includes a combination of exercises. c.Isometric contraction involves the movement of body parts. d. Resistive isometric exercises can travel to bone wasting. ANS B The best program of physical exercise includes a combination of exercises that produce different physiological and psychological benefits. Isotonic exercises cause muscle contractions and changes in muscle length. Isometric exercises involve tightening or tensing of muscles without moving body parts. Resistive isometric exercises help promote muscle strength and provide sufficient stress against bone to promote osteoblastic employment. DIF UnderstandREF 747 OBJ Describe how exercise and activity benefit physiological and psychological functioning. TOP Assessment MSC Teaching/Learning An active lifestyle is important for maintaining and promoting health. In developing an exercise program, the nurse u nderstands that 10. a. Physical exercise is contraindicated for patients with chronic illnesses. b. Regular physical activity is beneficial only for the body part that is exercised. c. Physical exercise has no effect on psychological well-being. d. Physical activity enhances functioning of all body systems. ANS D Regular physical activity and exercise enhance the functioning of all body systems, including cardiopulmonary functioning, musculoskeletal fitness, weight control and maintenance, and psychological well-being. It is also essential in treatment for chronic illness. DIF Understand REF 747 OBJ Describe the benefits of implementing an exercise program for the purpose of health promotion. TOP Assessment MSC Teaching/Learning 11. The nurse is developing an exercise program for elderly patients backing in a breast feeding home.To develop a beneficial health promotion program, the nurse necessarily to understand that when dealing with the elderly a. Exercise is of genuin ely little benefit because the patients are old. b. It is important to disregard their current interests in favor of exercise. c. No physical benefit can be gained without a nominal exercise program. d. Adjustments to exercise programs may have to be made to prevent problems. ANS D Exercise is extremely beneficial for older adults, but adjustments to an exercise program may have to be made for those of advanced age to prevent problems.When developing an exercise program for any older adult, consider not only the persons current activity level, range of motion, muscle strength and tone, and response to physical activity, but also the persons interests, capacities, and limitations. erstwhile(a) adults who are unable to participate in a formal exercise program are able to achieve the benefits of improved joint mobility and enhanced circulation by simply stint and exaggerating movements during performance of routine activities of daily living. DIF Understand REF 759 OBJ Describe the benefits of implementing an exercise program for the purpose of health promotion.TOP Assessment MSC Teaching/Learning The nurse is attempting to start an exercise program in a local community as a health promotion project. In explaining the purpose of the project, the nurse explains to community leaders that 12. a. A sedentary lifestyle contributes to the development of health- relate problems. b. The recommended frequency of workouts should be twice a day. c. An exercise prescription should coordinated aerobic exercise only. d. The purpose of weight training is to bulk up muscles. ANS A A sedentary lifestyle contributes to the development of health-related problems.A holistic approach is taken to develop overall fitness and includes unassailable-ups, aerobic exercise, resistance training, weight training, and so forth. The recommended frequency of aerobic exercise is 3 to 5 quantify per workweek or every other day for approximately 30 minutes. Crosstraining is recomm ended for the patient who prefers to exercise every day. Some patients use weight training to bulk up their muscles. However, the purposes of weight training from a health perspective are to develop tone and strength and to simulate and maintain healthy bone. DIF Understand REF 796-797 OBJDescribe the benefits of implementing exercise and activity. TOP Assessment MSC Teaching/Learning The patient is eager to receive his exercise program with a 2-mile jog. The nurse instructs the patient to warm up with stretching exercises. The patient states that he is ready and does not want to waste time with a warm-up. The nurse explains that the warm-up 13. a. Allows the body to readjust in stages to baseline functioning. b. Prepares the body and decreases the potential for injury. c. Should not involve stretching exercises because they can lead to injury. d.Should be performed with high intensity to prepare for the coming challenge. ANS B The warm-up activity prepares the body for a ctivity and decreases the potential for injury. It usually lasts about 5 to 10 minutes and may include stretching, calisthenics, and/or aerobic activity performed at a lower intensity. The cool-down period conquers the body to readjust gradually to baseline functioning and provides an opportunity to combine movement such as stretching with relaxation-enhancing mind-body awareness. DIF Understand REF 757 OBJ Describe the benefits of implementing exercise and activity.TOP Assessment MSC Teaching/Learning Many patients find it difficult to incorporate an exercise program into their daily lives because of time constraints. For these patients, it is beneficial to reinforce that many ADLs are used to accumulate the recommended 30 minutes or more per day of moderate-intensity physical activity. When instructing these patients, the nurse explains that 14. a. Housework is not considered an aerobic exercise. b. To strengthen back muscles, the patient should bend using back muscles. c. Daily chores should begin with gentle stretches. d.The patient should stick to one chore until it is done before beginning a new one. ANS C Daily chores should begin with gentle stretches. Housework is considered aerobic exercise. To make it more aerobic, work faster and scrub harder. Bend your legs rather than your back to prevent back injury. Alternate cleaning activities to prevent over work the same muscle groups. DIF Understand REF 757 OBJ Describe important factors to consider when cooking an exercise program for patients across the life span and for those with specific chronic illnesses. TOP Assessment MSC Teaching/Learning 15.The nurse is developing an exercise intend for someone diagnosed with congestive heart failure and exercise in gross profit margin. In doing so, the nurse should a. Plan for 20 minutes of continuous aerobic activity and increase as tolerated. b. Perform 6-minute walks at the patients pace at to the lowest degree 2 times a day. c. Instruct the patient that he should not take his beta blocker medication on exercise days. d. Encourage a high-calorie diet to end for extra calorie expenditure. ANS B For the diagnosis of exercise in adjustment, the patient should begin by performing 6minute walks at his own pace at least twice a day.The patient would not be able to tolerate 20 minutes of continuous aerobic activity. Patients should be instructed to take medications as ordered. Low-calorie, low-sodium, and high-protein diets are best for this type of patient. DIF Apply REF 755 OBJ Describe important factors to consider when planning an exercise program for patients across the life span and for those with specific chronic illnesses. TOP carrying out MSC Teaching/Learning Which of the following exercise activities would most likely provide the opportunity for mind-body awareness? 16. a. Warm-up activity b. shelter training c. Aerobic exercise d. Cool-down activity ANS D The cool-down period allows the body to readjust gradually to baseline functioning and provides an opportunity to combine movement such as stretching with relaxationenhancing mind-body awareness. The warm-up activity prepares the body and decreases the potential for injury. Aerobic exercise includes running, bicycling, jumping rope, and so forth, and is the main portion of exercise activity it precedes the cool-down period.Resistance training increases muscle strength and endurance and is associated with improved performance of daily activities but not with enhancing mind-body awareness. DIF Analyze REF 757 OBJ Describe important factors to consider when planning an exercise program for patients across the life span and for those with specific chronic illnesses. TOP Evaluation MSC Teaching/Learning The patient is brought to the hand brake incision with possible injury to his shoulder. To help determine the degree of injury, the nurse should evaluate 17. a.The patients stride. b. The patients range of motion. c. Fine motor coordination. d. Activity tolerance. ANS B Assessing range of motion is one assessment technique used to determine the degree of terms or injury to a joint. footstep is the manner or style of walking. It may have little bearing on the shoulder damage. Assessing fine motor coordination would be beneficial in circumstances to assess the patients ability to perform tasks but would not help in evaluating the shoulder. Activity tolerance refers to the type and amount of exercise or activity a person is able to perform.Damage to the shoulder would affect this, but this would not have a direct bearing on the amount of damage done to the shoulder. DIF Apply REF 752-753 OBJ Assess patients for afflicted mobility and activity intolerance. TOP Implementation MSC Teaching/Learning The nurse is examining a patient who is admitted to the emergency department with severe shove pain. Of the following situations, which would cause the nurse to suspect a ligament tear or joint fracture? 1 8. a. Range of motion of the elbow is limited. b. Joint motion is greater than normal. c.The patient has arthritis. d. The elbow cannot be moved (frozen). ANS B Increased mobility (beyond normal) of a joint may indicate alignment tissue disorders, ligament tears, or possible joint fractures. Limited range of motion often indicates inflammation such as arthritis, fluid in the joint, altered inwardness supply, or contractures (frozen joints). DIF Analyze REF 752-753 OBJ Assess patients for impaired mobility and activity intolerance. TOP Evaluation MSC Teaching/Learning The patient has been bedridden for several months owing to severe congestive heart disease.In determining a plan of tending for this patient that will address his activity level, the nurse formulates which of the following nursing diagnoses? 19. a. dash related to poor physical condition b. damage gas exchange related to decreased cardiac output c. Decreased cardiac output related to decreased myocardial co ntractility d. Activity intolerance related to physical deconditioning ANS D When activity and exercise are problems for a patient, nursing diagnoses often stress on the individuals ability to move. The diagnostic label directs nursing interventions.In this case, physical deconditioning must be addressed relative to activity level, perhaps prima(p) to 6-minute walks twice a day. Physical deconditioning is the cause of fatigue as well, so it would take priority over that diagnosis. Decreased cardiac output and myocardial contractility are serious concerns that must be addressed before activity intolerance to keep the patient safe and to help determine the level of exercise that the patient can tolerate, but reconditioning of the patients body will help improve contractility and cardiac output. DIF Apply REF 753 755 OBJFormulate nursing diagnoses for patients experiencing problems with impaired mobility and activity intolerance. TOP Implementation MSC Teaching/Learning The pati ent weighs 450 lbs (204. 5 kg) and complains of shortness of breath with any exertion. His health concern provider has recommended that he begin an exercise program. He states that he can hardly get out of bed and just cannot do anything around the house. To focus on the cause of the patients complaints, the nurse devises which of the following nursing diagnoses? 20. a. Activity intolerance related to excessive weight . Activity intolerance related to bed rest c. Impaired gas exchange related to shortness of breath d. Imbalanced nutrition less than body requirements ANS A The diagnostic label directs nursing interventions. This requires the elucidate selection of related factors. For example, Activity intolerance related to excess weight gain requires very different interventions than if the related factor is prolonged bed rest. In this case, the intolerance is related to the patients excessive weight. He is not on bed rest, although he claims that it is difficult for him to ge t out of bed.Shortness of breath is a symptom, not a cause, of Impaired gas exchange, making this nursing diagnosis ineffective. The patient certainly has an imbalance of nutrition, but it is more than body requirements. DIF Apply REF 753 OBJ Formulate nursing diagnoses for patients experiencing problems with impaired mobility and activity intolerance. TOP Implementation MSC Teaching/Learning The patient is being admitted for elective knee surgery. While the nurse is admitting the patient, she will 21. a. Begin to develop a discharge plan. b.Plan to wait until after the surgery to plan for discharge. c. Place a generalized discharge plan in the degrade for later use. d. Address immediate needs of the patient only and address other needs later. ANS A The nurse needs to begin discharge planning when the patient enters the health care system. The nurse cannot wait until after surgery to begin to plan for discharge. In addition, the discharge plan is always individualized to the patient and directed at meeting the actual and/or potential needs of the patient. DIF Apply REF 754 OBJWrite a nursing care plan for a patient with impaired mobility and activity intolerance. TOP Implementation MSC Teaching/Learning The patient is admitted with a stroke. The outcome of this disorder is uncertain, but the patient is unable to move his right arm and leg. The nurse understands that 22. a. Active range of motion is the only thing that will prevent contractures from forming. b. peaceful range of motion must be instituted to help prevent contracture formation. c. Range-of-motion exercises should be started 2 days after the patient is stable. d.Range-of-motion exercises should be done on study joints only. ANS B When patients cannot participate in active range of motion, the nurse must institute peaceable range of motion to maintain joint mobility and prevent contractures. Passive range of motion can be substituted for active when needed. For the patient who does not have voluntary motor control, passive range-of-motion exercises are the exercises of choice. Unless contraindicated, the nursing care plan includes exercising each joint (not just major joints) through as nearly a full range of motion as possible.Initiate passive range-of-motion exercises as soon as the patient loses the ability to move the extremity or joint. DIF Understand REF 759 OBJ Describe interventions for maintaining activity tolerance and mobility. TOP Assessment MSC Teaching/Learning The patient has been in bed for several days and needs to be ambulated. Before ambulation, the nurse 23. a. Removes the gait belt to allow for unrestricted movement. b. Has the patient get up from bed before he has a chance to get dizzy. c. Has the patient look down to watch his feet to prevent tripping. d.Dangles the patient on the side of the bed. ANS D Some patients experience orthostatic hypotensiona drop in squanderer pressure that occurs when the patient changes from a horiz ontal to a vertical position. Assist the patient to a position of sitting at the side of the bed, and dangle for 1 to 2 minutes before standing. The nurse needs to provide support at the waist so that the patients center of gravity remains midline. This is achieved with the use of a gait belt. A gait belt encircles the patients waist and may have handles attached for the nurse to hold while the patient ambulates.The patient should maintain as normal a walking posture as possible with the head erect. DIF Apply REF 759 OBJ Describe interventions for maintaining activity tolerance and mobility. TOP Implementation MSC Teaching/Learning 24. The nurse is ambulating a patient in the hall when she notices that he is beginning to fall. The nurse should a. Grab the patient and hold him tight to prevent the fall. b. Gently lower the patient to the floor. c. Jump back and let the patient fall naturally. d. Push the patient against the wall and guide him to the floor. ANS B If the patient has a fainting episode or begins to fall, assume a wide base of support with one foot in front of the other, thus reenforcement the patients body weight. Then extend one leg and let the patient slide against the leg, and gently lower the patient to the floor, protecting the patients head. Grabbing the patient will shift the nurses center of gravity and may lead to a back injury. Allowing the patient to fall could lead to head injury for the patient. Pushing the patient against the wall could also cause the patient to hit his head and cause injury. DIFApply REF 759 OBJ Describe interventions for maintaining activity tolerance and mobility. TOP Implementation MSC Teaching/Learning a. 25. In assisting the patient to exercise, the nurse should Expect that pain will occur with exercise of clean muscle groups. b. Set the pace for the exercise class. c. Force muscles or joints to go just beyond resistance. d. Stop the exercise if pain is experienced. ANS D Assess for pain, shortne ss of breath, or a change in vital signs. If present, stop exercise. Let each patient exercise at his or her own pace.Assess for joint limitations, and do not force a muscle or a joint during exercise. DIF Apply REF 759 OBJ Describe interventions for maintaining activity tolerance and mobility. TOP Implementation MSC Teaching/Learning The nurse is developing a plan of care for a patient diagnosed with activity intolerance. Of the following strategies, which has the best chance of maintaining patient compliance? 26. a. Performing 20 minutes of aerobic exercise daily with 10 minute warm-up and cool-down periods b. Instructing the patient to use an exercise log to record day, time, duration, and responses to exercise activity . Instructing the patient on the evils of not exercising, and getting her to take responsibility for her current health status d. Arranging for the patient to join a gym that she will have to pay, for so that she does not need to depend on insurance ANS B K eeping a log may increase adherence to an exercise prescription. Cross-training (combination of exercise activities) provides variety to combat boredom and increases the potential for total body conditioning as opposed to daily aerobic exercise. Blaming a patient for his or her health status is usually counterproductive.Instead, the nurse should instruct the patient about the physiological benefits of a regular exercise program. maturation a plan of exercise that the patient may perform at home may improve compliance. DIF treasure REF 756 OBJ Evaluate the nursing care plan for maintaining activity and exercise for patients across the life span and with specific chronic illnesses. TOP Evaluation MSC Teaching/ Learning 27. The nurse is working with the patient in developing an exercise plan. The patient tells the nurse that she just will not participate in a formal exercise program.The nurse then suggests that exercise activities can be incorporated into activities of daily livin g. The patient seems to be agreeable to that concept. Of the following activities, which would be considered a moderate-intensity activity? a. Doing laundry b. do the bed c. Ironing d. Folding clothes ANS D Low-intensity ADLs include doing the laundry, making the bed, ironing, and washing dishes. Moderate-intensity ADLs include sweeping the kitchen or sidewalk, washing windows, folding clothes, and vacuuming. DIF Evaluate REF 757 OBJEvaluate the nursing care plan for maintaining activity and exercise for patients across the life span and with specific chronic illnesses. TOP Evaluation MSC Teaching/ Learning MULTIPLE RESPONSE Bones perform five functions in the body support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and hematopoiesis. In the discussion of body mechanics, which are the most important? (Select all that apply. ) 1. a. Support b. Protection c. Movement d. Mineral storage e. Hematopoiesis ANS A, C Bones perform five functions in the body support, protection, movem ent, mineral storage, and hematopoiesis.In the discussion of body mechanics, two of these functions support and movementare most important. In support, bones serve as the framework and contribute to the shape, alignment, and positioning of body parts. In movement, bones together with their joints constitute levers for muscle attachment. As muscles contract and shorten, they pull on bones, producing joint movement. Protection involves encasing the soft tissue organs in a protective cage. Mineral storage helps to strengthen bones but also helps regulate blood levels of certain nutrients. Hematopoiesis is the formation of blood cells. DIF RememberREF 747 OBJ Describe the role of the musculoskeletal and nervous systems in the regulation of movement. TOP Assessment MSC Teaching/Learning When assessing the activity tolerance of a patient, the nurse would evaluate which of the following? (Select all that apply. ) 2. a. Skeletal abnormalities b. Emotional factors c. Age d. Pregnancy st atus e. Race ANS A, B, C, D Factors influencing activity tolerance include physiological factors such as skeletal abnormalities, emotional factors such as anxiety/depression, developmental factors such as age and gender, and pregnancy status.Race is not a factor because people of all races are faced with similar factors that affect their activity tolerance. DIF Apply REF 754 OBJ Assess patients for impaired mobility and activity intolerance. TOP Implementation MSC Teaching/Learning In developing a nursing care plan for increasing activity tolerance in a patient, the nurse should (Select all that apply. ) 3. a. Use generalized therapies because they work for everyone. b. Consult with members of the health care team. c.Avoid goals published by the American College of Sports Medicine. d. Involve the patient and the patients family in designing an exercise plan. e. Consider the patients ability to increase activity level. ANS B, D, E When planning care, the nurse should confer with/collaborate with members of the health care team to increase activity, involve the patient and family in designing an activity and exercise plan (especially if family members are also providers of care), and consider the patients ability to increase activity level.Therapies should be individualized to the patients activity tolerance. Information from the American College of Sports Medicine serves as a standard that the nurse should use when applying activity and exercise goals. DIF Apply REF 754 OBJ Write a nursing care plan for a patient with impaired mobility and activity intolerance. TOP Implementation MSC Teaching/Learning

Child Mental Health Factors Essay

The child mental health factors are comprised of sensory integration, emotional regulation, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Oppositional Disorder (ODD) and Autism (Michigan Non returns Association, 2002, p. 6). The children who have been diagnosed as sensitive or under-reactive to all of its five senses are perceived to be easily distracted and are displaying separate challenging behaviors such as impulsiveness and problem of proper transition in between certain events (Nelson, 1999 as cited from Michigan Non Profit Association, 2002, p.6). Other children are unable to regulate their emotions as such they are more prone to emotional outbursts whenever they are frustrated or is angry with someone (Murphy, Eisenberg and Fabes, 1999, as cited from Michigan Non Profit Association, 2002, p. 6). On the other hand, Attention Deficit Disorder (ADHD) is perceived to be more often present in male children rather than their female counterparts.However, the prevalence of ADHD is fractious to recognize because of the usual connotation that children are naturally difficult to deal with most specially during their early stages of development. As such, there is a need to undertake the help of psychiatrists and psychologists in order to properly address such a concern (Barreda-Hanson and Kilham, 1997 as cited from Michigan Non Profit Association, 2002, p. 6). The Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) is often times found in children who manifest high rates of problematic behaviors.Albeit, it should be noted that since difficult behaviors in juxtaposition with hyperactivity are hard to recognize due to its close resemblance to ADHD (Speltz, McClellan and DeKleyen, 1999 as cited from Michigan Non Profit Association, 2002, p. 6). Children with Autism have difficulties communicating with other people. In other cases, some of them could be virtually unaware of other people surrounding them. Autism usually appears during the age of three and has an incidence of 1 every 500 children (National, 1998 as cited from Michigan Non Profit Association, 2002, p. 6).

Apush Frq Essay

1763 was the family that the forever changed the relationship between the American colonies and their mother country, Great Britain. This year was not only the year when the French and Indian War finally came to an end with the Treaty of Paris 1763, but was the also the beginning of the many changes that Britain trim downd on the colonies. Following the war, Britain, in an attempt to tighten its control over the colonies, and raise money, pursued new mercantilist policies, leading to colonial resentment.The Proclamation of 1763 was issued in this year, and was the first of the long list of acts and grievances that the colonists had against Britain. 1763 was an strategic turning point in American history, because it was the point in which the results of the French and Indian war and underlying tensions caused the British to dramatically change their colonial policies. This jerky change in the British attitude, directly led the colonists to their first thoughts of rebellion, and wa s essentially the cause of the yettual American Revolution.For a long time, even before the starting time of the French and Indian War, France and Britain had been in war. The series of conflicts, King Williams War, Queen Annes War, and King Georges war were all fought between France and Britain over dirt in America. In the French and Indian War, the main reason behind the conflict was also land-this time, specifically over the rich Ohio River Valley. The French initially set(p) claims to the Ohio River Valley, but the incline were expanding into that area.Another important factor in this war, were the primeval Americans of that area, who lived there and wanted to establish a presence as traders there. While most Native Americans sided the French, the most powerful native group, the Iroquois Confederacy allied with the British. The beginning of the war started when the VA organisation sent a militia under Geroge washingotn to challenge French expansion. uppercase created Fort Necessity, and attacked the French Fort Duquesne, where he suffered an easy defeat.Following this, a conference of delegates met in capital of New York to negotiate a treaty wtith the Iroquois to help fight the war. Ben Franklin created the Albany Plan of Union which called for a colonial federation for defense against the Indians. merely none of the colonies agreed to this, as it took away too much of their independence. Although there was no colonial support of the this plan, it was still an important precedent for the concept of uniting it the face of a common enemy. In this first phase of the war, there was truly little British help.But with the shift into the second phase, Fernch and Indian War became an internation conflict (becoming the 7 Yrs War). In the third phase of the war, English started to be successful in their battles, and the war finally ended with the siege of Quebec, with the English as victors. With the Treaty of Paris 1763, France loses all of its land in Am erica, and the Britains territory besidely doubles. But although Britain gained much land, the debt of the war is staggering. Because of this huge amount of debt, Britain couldnt continue to impose salutary neglect on the colonies.Salutary neglect was the policy of avoiding strict enforcement of parliamentary laws, much(prenominal) as the Navigation Acts. 1763, was the year when Britain just couldnt afford to continue salutary neglect. Following the war, Britain realized that there needed to be a major(ip) reorganization of the American empire. The British also wanted the colonists to pay for some of the war costs, in return for Britain protecting them during the war. Americans refused to pay it, and Britain therefore started to strictly impose the Navigation Acts.Because of the victory, American colonists start to feel confident, and less dependant on Great Britain. Therefore, since the British continued to keep troops on the American frontier, even when there was no need, coloni sts started to feel very resentful. Britian was also angry at the colonists for their minimal contribution to the war effort. The colonists didnt wholeheartedly support the far, and traded with the French during the war. both of these factors combined caused an intense amount of resentment between the colonists and the British.This is important, because the colonists are finally united in their resentment towards the British. Following the war, many English colonists started to settle westerly onto the new lands that the Treaty of Paris of 1763 brought. But although the French threat was gone from this area, the Indians still remained. In this year of 1763, an Ottawa chief, Pontaic, organizes an alliance of several tribes to revolt against the English expansion. The Indians attack several fots, stage uprisings and kill many of the British and colonists. The British retaliate by spreading small-pox infested blankets to the Indians.In order to stop more of the Indian attacks, the go vernment then issued the Proclamation fo 1763, which drew a line along the Appalachain mountains, and forbade the any settlement west of that line. Instead of viewing the Proclamation as a way to protect the colonists, they see it instead as a control issue. The colonists believe that the British are only trying to get them to stay near the Atalantic Seaboard to control them easier. So colonists ignore the Proclamation, and still expand beyond that line. This Proclamation caused an even greater push to rebellion.

Week 3 Acct2522

ACCT2522 Management Accounting 1 Session 1, 2013 Tutorial Week 3 Cost basics Over on the whole Theme We will explore sound assumptions of hail functions and discuss the relationships between cost behaviour, cost estimation and cost prediction. The concept of cost driver analysis and its application to cost estimation and cost management will also be discussed. We will also describe how to estimate cost behaviour using managerial judgment, engineering methods and other decimal techniques. Desired Learning Outcomes and Essential Reading Langfield-Smith, K. , H. Thorne, and R. W. Hilton (2012).Management Accounting 6e Information for Managing and Creating Value, 6th ed, McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. (Hereafter referred to as LS) Chapter 2 Chapter 3 (include Appendix 3 portion on Evaluating the reversal equation p. 108109) TOPIC 3 COST BASICS After completing this topic, you should be able to 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Why are cost important? What does different be for different pu rposes mean? Understand and apply various classifications of costs. Understand cost drivers and the role of cost driver analysis. Describe and apply the activity hierarchy of costs and cost drivers.Explain the relationships between cost estimation, cost behaviour and cost prediction. Understand and apply various methods for cost estimation. Understand some practical issues faced in estimating cost functions. 1 Tutorial Questions (must be prepared prior to the tutorial) Question 1 Langfield-Smith, Chapter 3, Case 3. 41 Parts Q3-8 all Please note that all lists in the cost functions should be rounded off to 2 dec places. Excel regress outputs are as follows Part 1 If only patient load is considered as a determinant of administration costs, a simple regression can be used, utilising Excel.The output is reproduced below. Regression Statistics Multiple R 0. 927088078 R Square 0. 859492304 Adjusted R Square 0. 824365379 Standard Error 401. 9749382 Observations 6 ANOVA df Regression Res idual Total 1 4 5 Coefficients Intercept Patients 6 181. 36646 3. 838509317 SS 3 953 664. 596 646 335. 4037 4 600 000 Standard error 730. 0175478 0. 775999898 MS 395 3665 161583. 9 F 24. 468191 implication F 0. 00778042 t Stat 8. 467422 4. 946533 P-value 0. 0010661 0. 0077804 Lower 95% 4 154. 51281 1. 6839882 Upper 95% 8 208. 220107 5. 993030436Part 2 When both patient load and the number of emergency procedures are considered as determinants of administrative cost, a multiple regression must be used. Utilising Excel, the regression statistics are reproduced below. Regression Statistics Multiple R 0. 92919029 R Square 0. 86339459 Adjusted R Square 0. 77232432 Standard Error 457. 669779 Observations 6 ANOVA Regression Residual Total df 2 3 5 SS 3 971 615. 12 628 384. 8797 4 600 000 MS 1 985 808 209 461. 6 F 9. 480532 Significance F 0. 05048959 Standard Lower Coefficients Error t Stat P-value 95% Intercept 5943. 98625 1161. 190869 5. 18871 0. 01443 2 248. 558665 Emergency 24. 9140893 85. 10570782 0. 292743 0. 788799 -245. 930256 Patients 3. 80756014 0. 889819838 4. 279024 0. 023443 0. 975756281 Upper Lower Upper 95% 95. 0% 95. 0% 9 639. 414 2 248. 5599 639. 414 295. 7584 -245. 932 95. 7584 6. 639364 0. 975756 6. 639364 2 Question 2 Refer to Beth and Jessies ice cream factory from the tutorial last week. Please assume that in addition to chocolate chip ice-cream, Beth and Jessie have expanded their operations to produce Extra Chewy Cookie Dough ice-cream and Super Creamy Strawberry Cheesecake ice-cream. They leased semi-retired chef on a project-by-project basis to help develop these two flavours and he is currently experimenting with another advanced flavour Very Juicy Mango Delight. We just assume that the processes are exactly the same to manufacture all three types of ice-creams, except that different flavours and different extra ingredients are added. A. Please give examples of the avocation Cost object = A box of ice-cream. 1. A unit take cost 2. A b atch train cost 3. A intersection level cost 4. A facility level cost B. For each of the your examples, 1. Suggest a potential cost driver 2.Classify the cost as manufacturing or non-manufacturing 3 Self Study Questions and Solutions (complete in your own time) 1. 2. 3. 4. LS, Chapter 2, Self-Study problem 1. LS, Chapter 2, Review Question 2. 7 LS, Chapter 3, Question 3. 34. Mowen, Chapter 3, Question 3. 10. (Note You are not required to run a regression, the output table is provided below. 4 Self Study Questions and Solutions (complete in your own time) 1. LS, Chapter 2, Self-Study problem 1. Solution is on p. 61-62 with the following amendments 4) Answer should a, and h. (Sales and marketing are oftentimes used interchangeably. 7) Answer should be a, and NOT b. (The word-processing equipment is used for administration purposes and should not be inventorised. ) 9) Answer should be a, and either g or h. (If the new product packaging is designed to attract customers attention and i ncrease sales, the cost of material can also be considered a marketing cost. ) 2. LS, Chapter 2, Review Question 2. 7 When analysing cost behaviour the level of activity refers to the level of work performed in the organisation. The activity generally causes the cost and, for this reason, the level of activity is often referred to as the level of cost driver.Activity can be expressed in many different ways, including units produced, number of machine hours, number of direct labour hours, number of transactions, kilometres driven, kilowatts used, pages printed, number of set-ups, number of engineering hours and so on. 3. LS, Chapter 3, Question 3. 34. Answers to this question will vary. Rather than looking for a right answer, students should seek an understanding of the concepts. 1. Given that a full-time technician is hired, this fortune of the cost is a refractory cost.The additional cost of repairs by the local dealer may be related to the number of instruments used in the scho olhouse, or number of hours of instruction. A semi- shifting cost. 2. The number of audit hours is a cost driver, which, in turn may be related to the number of students (influencing the number of transactions. ) A variable cost. 3. No cost driver a fixed cost step-fixed cost if the number of students grew beyond the ability of existing admin staff to cope and another new staff has to be hired. 4. Number of students enrolled, or number of hours of instruction. Variable cost. . No cost driver i. e. a fixed cost (if annual fixed fee paid) or, (if paid on an hourly basis) the number of hours employed or the number of hours of instruction (i. e. , a variable cost). 6. Number of students enrolled. A variable cost. 7. A fixed cost no driver. (However, in the long term, the cost of new instruments purchased will drive the depreciation charge. ) 8. Probably fixed no cost driver. 9. Number of hours the school is open. A semi-variable cost. 5 4. Mowen, Chapter 3, Question 3. 10 Note You may have a slightly different figure due to rounding (e. g. , 1). 6

Dark green religion and hunting Essay

Hunting and subdued car park faith with a Twist of variant Hunting Dark Green Religion and break outdoor(a) down go hatful in hand in the traditional sense. According to Dark Green Religion, as exemplified by Bron Taylor, the oddment of an living organism should be appreciated and teach us the ethics of loving and caring for the bounty of our planet. bring on sentient beings atomic number 18 killed either the time with the on the noseification that they ar for feed. The conditions those animals deal with be explicitly anti-DGR. There argon several types of capture but the main deuce are catch for subsistence and frisk pursuit.Hunting for food is bankable because since the beginning of time, animals eat different animals, due to our carnal nature. Numerous environmentalists, in accordance with Bron Taylor, keep that hunting is a life loosenessction for almost whole animals its either for survival or for food, therefrom it is acceptable, but the death of a n animal should come at a price of great trouble and appreciation. Dark Green Religion and its followers believe that animals have some sort of apparitional value, this leads them to respect all living things whether they are sentient universes or non.Humans are omnivores by nature, so consume exsanguine animals is as natural as it can get, as long as it is non factory farmed. angiotensin-converting enzyme thought that arises is what is naturally acceptable and what is not? In the wise words of Henry David Thoreau what is wild is goodlyish or all good things are wild and free. 1 Anything that is untainted by humans is natural, just the likes of cleaning for food is natural, but killing to show off skill is not because different animals in the wild do not kill for pleasure or tingling. It is either for food or for self-preservation in some rare cases.Through the various DGR literature pieces that are analyzed in this newspaper publisher there is a spectrum in the enviro nmental literature. 2At superstar end is the view that hunting is justified scarcely for self protection and for food, where no other reasonable alternative is available. Most writers, in this case Bron Taylor, Gretel avant-garde Wieren, and Priscilla Cohn, also agree that hunting is sometimes justified in order to protect endangered species and endanger ecosystems where destructive species have been introduced or natural predators have been exterminated.Others, especially in western society, accept hunting as part of cultural tradition or for the psychological considerably being of the hunter, sometimes all-embracing to include recreational hunting when practiced according to sportsmaning rules. Nowhere in the literature as far as DGR is concerned is hunting for fun, for the enjoyment of killing, or for the acquisition of trophies supported. 3 Imagine being an animal getting chased and shot at by humans for unmixed enjoyment. It cannot be fun especially if they miss the vit al organs and you are in severe pain. any(prenominal)times the hunt go away take hours and the animal will drag its mutilated body around trying to die in peace because that is all it can do at that aspire. Animals can feel pain just like us. In a movie that Dr. Ellard showed to us in class, a man with special powers transferred the pain and sadness of a dying deer to a hunter, the hunter screamed and writhed in pain. That just makes you think what must(prenominal) have been going through the deers brain. At what point is it acceptable to kill animals?For instance, killing in self defense is justified only if no magnetic coreive nonlethal means is available. Some say the thrill of the hunt makes it worth whatever the cost may be. Killing to obtain trophies would be justified and only if trophies are an grave nonsubstitutable good, or if some other important substitute good cannot reasonably be achieved by any other means. 4 Others say hunting does have a thrill but it shouldnt be the only thoughts going through your head. According to Bron Taylor no atomic numbers of DGR folk hunt. Taylor does not approve of pillage or sport hunting.In his words although there is nothing wrong in my view with appreciating and enjoying all that goes with the hunt, this is best combined with the feelings of sadness that I fancy also comes with the taking of life. Dark Green Religion gives wildlife intrinsic value and a sort of spiritual relevance. Wild life is to be revered, not conquered and made to look inferior. 5 Humans are a part of the whole circle of life, and we should stay within our circle and not go out and eradicate it. Bron and I discussed the main reason to which degree hunting should be considered acceptable.I think hunting is excusable for food, as a philosophical understanding that we are not superior but rather are a part of nature and like other organisms, kill to survive and thrive, and it is also justifiable, sometimes, to promote the wellness of an ecosystem and the viability of other species populations. 6 According to Gretel Van Wieren agrees with me that there is less harm done in hunting that there is factory farming. In our case up here in the northeast, we have hunted the wolves to extinguishing in our region.The wolves were the main predators of the deerpopulation, since all the wolves have been killed now it is our responsibility to hunt the deer since they are constantly overpopulating the region and devastating the flora of the region along with farm refine. Bron Taylor and his colleagues who are mentioned above, joined us in our discussion, agreed with me wholeheartedly thru the lens of DGR. According to Ted Kerasote, avid outdoorsman, hunter, and author, buried in our animal nature lies an important but unstated fact The sire to hunt and the drive for sex have much in common. Both are primal and both can be thanked for our presence here today.While the drive to hunt is less obvious than the drive for sex, the former plausibly contributed more to our culture. Sex is accomplished by two, but hunting is often accomplished in cohesive and enduring groups. 7 Before we became hunters, we met our regard for animal protein by snacking on insects, snails, fledgling birds and other slow creatures too bittie to share. But hunting produced large, festive meals too grand to be eaten by any one person, meals which could feed large groups of battalion who would stay around the dust not only to be sure of their shares but also to defend the meat from scavengers.8 Based on the facts presented by Kerasote hunting, therefore, made us social. Since we have evolved and advanced so much that hunting is outdated in most cases, we hunt for other reasons. Hunting has brought us subsistence, and because the social aspect took over and now we are acting in the reverse direction of why we started hunting in the first place. The social aspect has led us to believe that hunting is acceptable just for the socia l aspect and not for that which it was originally intended.On the other hand, certain pack, hold that animals were not put on earth for our use, certainly not so that we can kill them for pleasure. To the various DGR people mentioned in the paper, sport hunting is no more exalted than pulling the wings off flies. What the turn off comes down to, then, is this Now that we have become an industrialized society, should we indulge our instincts at the expense of other good for you(p) forms of life? That question has been very intelligently addressed in Ted Kerasotes book called Bloodties.He makes a big a point in his introduction to the book that as long as we hunt locally (so that we dont burn fossil fuel getting to our quarry) and as long as we eat the victim, we do infinitely less harm to the overall environment than we do by eating ordinary supermarket vegetables. After all, the vegetables are grown by an energy-hungry agribusiness whose pesticides decimate the ecosystem and whos e combines fatally batter hundreds of small animals (insects, toads, snakes, ground-nesting birds, mice, voles, woodchucks, striped squirrels, weasels, skunks, foxes) in the course of each harvest.But venison is in dramatic contrast to the vegetables resulting from that harvest, as well as to feed-dependent pork, beef, mutton, chicken and turkey. Unlike agricultural produce, venison requires no pesticide or fossil-fuel to grow, and results in the loss of just one life the deers. 9 Why dont we all check up on this? Because to many of us, the puny animals in the crops are vermin and the deer are Bambi, yet as Kerasote points out, life is precious to all creatures. This point that he makes shows us how deep this animal harm goes, people who are vegans probably do not think this deep.The land cleared for their food was once a home to animals. That same land is annually inhabited by other animals and every year they get killed or chased away by machinery. Kerasote hunts, probably very well. As a hunter he sounds more like an Inuit or a Bushman (or more like a wolf or a mountain lion, to name two other hunters of the deer) than like the camouflage-clad, beer-sodden macho types with automatic weapons who infest the woods each fall. And because hes a hunter, Kerasotes descriptions of hunts are realistic perfection, his detail is very vivid and proves the reader with imagery that makes you want to hunt.The thrill of the hunt is what our ancestors must have followed in order to even overcome the challenge of hunting with stones and on foot. Trophy hunting is the selective hunting of wild game animals. Although parts of the slain animal may be kept as a hunting trophy or memorial (usually the skin, antlers and/or head), the carcass itself is seldom used as food or mostly it is considered useless and thrown away. 10 Sport hunting goes back to ancient Mesopotamia and Persia. Kings would conduct lion hunts from chariots, and would often stock their lands with the beasts f or this purpose.One of the oldest legends in munimentGilgameshcelebrates his killing of lions and other beasts, mythic and real. Huntingwhether for food or for sporthas been directly tied to the extinction of megafauna in the Ice Age 41,000 years ago. The advent of firearms made hunting easier, and hunting expeditions (like the safaris of the 19th and primaeval 20th centuries) became popular. 11 Before conservation laws, virtually anything was deemed fair game elephants, tigers, rhinos, gorillas, wolves, deer, elk and most other large animals.Most of the animals involved with trophy hunting are either endangered or on the watch list. Sport hunting is a brutal business. It means taking the life of an innocent animal for personal gain. The hunting industry doesnt like the word kill because it exposes the lie that animals die peacefully after being arrowed, shot, trapped, choked and generally tortured to death. So they sanitize the cruelty of hunting by using euphemisms to describe t heir evil deeds. 12 To make matters worse, not all of these animals that are hunted for sport are eaten this promotes the lack of appreciation for their life.It is certainly true that many hunters seek to kill trophy animals which are incisively the animals that the species can least afford to lose the genetically immemorial animals. 13 Since hunters look for the prime animals to kill, the stunted and genetically unfit animals are allowed to fund and then the offspring have less of a chance of surviving which further hinders the population as well as the hunters that are still hunting the species. A chief of this would be hunting elephants with big tusks.When the animals with big tusks are poached, the remaining population has to breed with males that would have otherwise lost in fights over mating partners. Since these elephants are genetically inferior precisely due to the size of their tusks, they are less likely to survive because during the dry season they will not be able t o dig for water, and their offspring would have to endure the same trouble. This would cull the population to the point where there would not be enough healthy elephants to keep the population alive.This just goes to show how much(prenominal) small actions by mankind can lead to such adverse effects for animals. Sport and trophy hunting have other deleterious effects on animal populations, as I discussed precedent in the paper with my example of the deer and wolf dilemma in northeast America. Hunting for sport has obliterated species. The dodo birds disappearance along with passenger pigeons is attributed mostly to sport hunters, and the diachronic decimation of the American buffalo from sport hunters nearly pushed that species to total extinction.Big game hunting was a madness in the 1800s, and their effect on animal populations was devastating. Sport hunters of the time were ignorant of issues like sustainable conduct populations, and there were no protected species until th e first conservation laws were passed in the 20th century. 14 Dark Green Religion people have made it their mission to let society know of the harm they are causing by hunting for pleasure. If you look at the bigger picture here, anything that humans do for pure pleasure generally has a harsh consequence for the environment.If we paid attention to the devastation we cause we would probably help reduce the amount of damage we cause to our one and only planet. If the pros of sports hunting can be outweighed the cons by so much more it makes an obvious statement against sports hunting. Sport hunting has the direct effect of reducing animal populations unless it is tightly regulated, this form of hunting can decimate species and disrupt the balance of ecosystems. 15 In many cases sports hunting has already upset an established ecological balance as in the case of the white tailed deer and the wolves.The message of DGR people is quite clear at this point, and we see that in some cases ad vocacy helps, but illegal sports hunting still proceeds unhindered in many cases and we need to help raise support against it by denying a market for illegal animal products. According to various environmentalists along with Bron Taylor, Gottlieb, and Henry David Thoreau, in order to fix the problem, we need to identify the problem and advocate to the public to the point where the public will be scrambling for a solution on their own. As these various authors are working on advocating the problem, the environment and society are still on a downhill plunge.In some cases we need visceral Dark Green Religion to come in explain why some groups regard wilderness with such reverence. It is because of Dark Green Religion that I even wanted to write this paper. I hope the rest of the world is as understanding as I am and attempt to do as much as anyone can to help advance the situation, because that is the only way change will occur.Bibliography Gunn, Alastair S. Environmental Ethics and T rophy Hunting. Ethics & the Environment. no. 1 (2001) 68-95. Kerasote, Ted. Bloodties constitution, Culture, and the Hunt . New York Random House, 1993.Priscilla Cohn Ethics and Wildlife Hunting Myths, Lewiston, NY Edwin Mellen, 1999. Swan, James A. In Defense Of Hunting. New York harpist Collins, 1995. Tallmadge, John, Deerslayer with a Degree, in Mark Allister (ed. ) Eco-Man New Perspectives on Masculinity and Nature, University of Virginia Press, 2004, 17-27 Taylor, Bron.Dark Green Religion Nature Spirituality and the Planetary Future. Los Angeles University of California Press, 2009. Wade, Maurice L. Animal Liberationaism, Ecocentrism, and the Morality of Sport Hunting. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. (1990) 15-27.

Do you find any of the arguments for cognitivism convincing? Essay

Cognitivism, also referred to as deterrent example realism, is a belief held that morality is independent of human existence. Cognitivists will state that there are such things as moral facts which we washbowl discover, rather than ethical motive being subjective and developed individually. To them, severally judgment is true or false, and this applies to any moral judgment. I believe that rationalism and naturalism passel easily be dismissed as implausible, illogical and inhuman. Kants cold, calculated address to ethics is mockery of the highest degree, whilst Hume, Mill and Aristotles strict moral principles undermine our human fallacies at the foundation. They make too overmuch of an attempt to define reas aned (which surely is indefinable, merely as red or four corporation non be defined, whole represented). For this reason, I prefer G. E. Moores system of Consequentialist Intuitionism. His belief that morals are intuited seems a flock more human to us, but it stil l has a lot of shortfalls. Overall, cognitivism has galore(postnominal) more light(a)nesses than strengths, as I shall discuss.It is, first of all, important to define cognitivism and moral realism. The beliefs state that morality is not invented, but discovered by various means (depending on the theory). chastes are objective, and part of our world, not part of us as human beings. There are moral facts which we must adhere to, and all moral judgments can be true or false. There is always a decent or wrong.The first of the cognitivist theories is that of rationalism, and is most normally associated with Prussian philosopher Immanuel Kant. He states that reason by itself and independently of all appearances commands what ought to happen (1), i.e. we can perceive what is skilful or wrong purely through reason. He believes that e very moral judgment should be do using our reason, and that it will always provide the right hand course of action. This follows Kants idea of a plan e overbearing, which is what we are required to do in a certain situation. This creates a kind of set Moral Law based on universalised maxims, which basically means that an action can only be right if it can be universalised. This, according to Kant, leads to a perfect moral system. To his favour, the theory is very simple to understand, and in many ways it is logical, but from there on it raises more questions than it answers.First of all, how can morals doable be independent? If we are to know them a priori, then where does this knowledge come from? It is ludicrous to grow that this knowledge of the moral law appears from nowhere. Arthur Schopenhauer raised this point in his critique of Kants moral theory Kant attempted to give a foundation to Ethics independent of this will, and establish it without metaphysical hypotheses, and there was no longer any adeptification for taking as its basis the words thou shalt, and it is thy duty (that is, the imperative establish), witho ut first deducing the truth thereof from some other source. (2) This very well asks this question. Another very oversize issue with Kants theory is his intense focus on reason. I disagree strongly with this.How can moral decisions be made in a complete absence of sense? Surely emotions and feelings form the basis of our judgments? Schopenhauer illustrates the impossibility of a loveless doer of good, who is indifferent to the sufferings of other people (2). This seems like a very obvious fallacy, and I agree with it. It completely undermines the whole point of morality, for surely whiz can appreciate the absurdity of a loveless doer of good. Where does this categorical duty arise from, if not emotion?Reason does not motivate man, it guides him. Emotions drive man to perform action, but Kant completely overlooks this, steady though fellow rationalist David Hume (who Kant once claimed awoke him from his dogmatism) makes this point Reason is, and ought only to be, the slave of the passions, and can neer pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them. (3) Overall, Kants rationalism is a very weak theory (not unlike the bulk of his work, I daresay), and I completely disagree with every item-by-item part of it. How this theory is even being discussed in todays society, let alone in the 16th/17th Century leaves me in the dark. It is not even worth considering as a moral theory, and should be dismissed from consideration immediately.The second theory is less specific, referring more to several similarly-aimed theories, rather than just one. These theories are privy Stuart Mills Utilitarianism and Aristotles Theory of Virtue in particular. Naturalism is a theory that focuses on good as natural properties. This can be a multitude of things. John Stuart Mill said that the creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote triumph, wrong as they tend to produce the countermand of happiness. (4) This means, in essence, that happiness is the ultimate good. Obviously, happiness is a natural principle, and therefore it makes Utilitarianism a realistic theory. Aristotles virtue theory is somewhat different. It refers to set virtues that must be followed in order to reach the Highest Happiness, which is fulfilment of ones function as a human being.(5) This means that Aristotles definition of good is to fulfill the function of your soul, which involves living a virtuous life. In general, these theories seem quite sensible, as representational properties are a logical place to start within morality. Unfortunately, there is one very major(ip) problem which G.E. Moore pointed out, and it is known as the Naturalistic Fallacy. This fallacy describes how one cannot possibly define good, just as you cannot define blue or six. They are purely concepts we assign to certain things, not objective definites. Moore said that Good is one of t hose innumerable objects of thought which are themselves incapable of definition, because they are the ultimate terms by reference to which whatever is capable of definition must be defined.(6) Obviously the naturalistic theories attempt to make sense of good by definition, and that is the most obvious problem with them. How can one possibly say that one thing in particular means good? Surely its a matter of opinion, and entirely subjective? And, as with other cognitivist theories, there is the problem of objective morality. Where does this happiness and these virtues come from? Are they not subjective human inventions, not discoveries? Overall, this is also a very weak theory, although it does have some stronger points than rationalism. However, I disagree with this theory as well since it offers a strict approach to ethics and makes us define good, which I think defeats the whole object of morality.The third and final exam theory is also, in my opinion, the strongest. G.E. Moore d evised this theory as retaliation the naturalists. He draws inspiration from their committing of the naturalistic fallacy and proposes a completely different cognitive theory. Moore, in his Principia Ethika (6), states that there is no need to define good (see acknowledgment above). Our intuition reveals what is right or wrong without the need for a set good. As an empiricist and a consequentialist, Moore believed that one could intuit, through experience, what the right decision would be in a moral judgment. Intuition would help us discover the objective morals and use them correctly. The right application was to find friendship, according to Moore.W.D. Ross took an evoke approach and turned this on its head, defining it instead as a deontological theory. In his most noteworthy work, The Right and the Good, he said that the moral orderis just as much part of the aboriginal nature of the universe (andof any possible universe in which there are moral agents at all) as is the spat ial or numerical structure expressed in the axioms of geometry or arithmetic. (7) Basically, he states that the morals are part of the universe itself, and that we dont need experience to interpret it, we need only our intuition, which will tell us them directly. Although this theory is a lot more human and obvious to us, and is the strongest of the 3 theories, it stills falls short, and is a fairly weak theory. Isnt Moores suggestion of friendship a thinly veiled attempt at definition of good, or at the very least a specific instruction? Not especially intuitive. Also, where do we intuit these morals from? Sorely morality in general cannot be objective (which, granted, is a problem with cognitivism, not specifically intuitionism). Again, this is a weak theory, even though it prevails over the other two.In the end, cognitivism as a whole is not especially expedient as a guide as to where morals come from. I stated earlier that cognitivism has many more weaknesses than strengths, and I displayed that through my various condemnations of the theories individually, and also of cognitivism as a whole. Surely morality cannot be objective? Isnt the whole point of morals the fact that they are individual and developed subjectively? Surely there would be no moral disagreement if they in fact were objective, but that is simply not the case. No, the answer lies in the direct counterpart of cognitivism, non-cognitivism. Morality is for certain subjective, as it is part of our human nature to form opinions based on emotion and preference, not in principles which are apparently entwined in this world we live in. Cognitivism, as a whole, is completely useless in terms of moral abridgment and I completely and utterly disagree with all it states.Bibliography1. Kant, Immanuel. Groundwork on the Metaphysics of Morals. 1785.2. Schopenhauer, Arthur. On the Basis of Morality. 1837.3. Hume, David. A Treatise of Human Nature. 1739.4. Mill, John Stuart. Utilitarianism. 1861.5. Ar istotle. Ta Ethika.6. Moore, G.E. Principia Ethica. 1903.7. Ross, W. D. The Right and the Good. 1930.